06 如何在写作中使用话语标记语
话语标记语及其作用分析
▲话语标记语概述
从20世纪80年代起,就有众多西方学者开始关注和研究话语标记语。但是时至今日,
话语标记语也没有统一的命名和定义。
通过以往文章的回顾,我们发现研究的角度、范围和领域不同,其对话语标记语的命
名也就不同,例如话语联系语(Halliday & Hasan, 1976 ),语用联系语(Van Dijk, 1979 ),提
示语(Rouchuota, 1978 ),语义连词(Quirk, et al, 1985 ),话语操作语(Redeker, 1991),话语小品
词(Schourup, 1985 ),语用标记语(Schiffrin,1987; Fraser, 1989),话语联系语(Blackmore,
1987,1992),语用构成语(Fraser,1987 )等等,就像我们看到的那样,不同的术语背后传达出
对话语标记语的态度与角度不同,在本文中,笔者统一使用了话语标记语这一术语。
如上文中所提到的一样,不同的学者从不同的语言学分支出发来研究话语标记语,因
此对于话语标记语的定义也各有不同。Ostman是第一个研究话语标记语的人,you know是
其第一个研究样本,他认为,每个话语的理解都要依靠包含话语标记语的语篇,这些小品
词包含了与语境相关的必要信息,她认为小品词所包含的主要功能是语篇组织、互动信号
和态度标记。Halliday和Hasan(1976 )在其《英语中的衔接》中指出话语标记语是一种连
接方式,它影响着语篇衔接与连贯,并且有其独特的衔接功能。Schiffrin (1987 )采用自下
而上的方法,从社会互动或连贯的角度,对11个话语标记语的话语功能进行了定性与定量
分析,她认为话语标记语是划分话语的界标,是依附与前言后语的。她从话语的局部连贯
角度出发,对标记语进行了操作性的定义,对于 Redeker来说,她将话语标记语视为话语
操作语,并将其定义为“用来表示话语与当前语境关系的语言表达”Redeker, 1990)
oRedeker和S chiffrin都认为话语标记语是标记连贯的关系,她称之为“话语操作语”。但
是Redeker对S chiffrin的定义做了一些修改,她认为话语标记语只是一个词或短语,例如
一个连接词,一个副词,评论子句或感叹词。这些词是语篇中的一种连贯装置,其作用是
将听众的注意力集中到一种特定的联系上,即在即将到来的话语语境中。
90年代,Fraser (1990, 1996 )从语用的角度出发,把话语标记定义为一种主要来自连
词,副词和介词短语的句法类的词汇表达,除了某些例外,它们表示了他们引入的段的句
子与上一段句子表达之间的关系。他们有一个核心意义,是程序性的,而非概念性的,它
们更具体的解释是通过上下文来谈判的,既包含了语言性也包含概念性。它们有两种类型:一类是对句子与句子某个部分有关联的某方面的明确的解释。另一类是表示句子和句子之
间的主题的相关的解释。此后,Lenk (1998),Blackmore ( 2002)没有对话语标记语进行定义。
但是,Blackmore(2002)是基于关联理论来研究话语标记语的代表人物,她开启了研究的新
视角一
认知语用视角,她认为要从关联理论出发,对话语理解的心理过程进行解释。吴丽君,王
祖螺(2014)她用认知心理的理论来解释话语标记语的认知心理依据,对于话语标记语的语
言机制的研究,是进一步深化的认识。
学者们从不同的角度来定义话语标记语,实际上,可以把其分为两个部分,一方面,
话语标记语被认为是相对封闭的类别,以Schiffrin为代表;一方面被认为是功能更加宽泛,
具有更多成员的类别。在对前人的定义进行回顾之后,笔者对其定义进行了总结和修改。
笔者认为话语标记语是包括部分连词(如but, sothat )·副词(如really, consequently )、感叹词
(如well, aha)以及某些短语或小句(如as a matter of fact, because of, in brief)的一种常见的话
语组成成分,是在话语中起着特定的功能和提示的成分,其存在不影响句子的命题意义,
只是对句子的语境起着程序性的标记作用(冉永平,2000)。这一定义被认为是具有包容性
的和足够广泛的,基本能包含其他的定义的内容。
▲话语标记语功能
影响英语写作的因素有很多,例如词汇知识,句法知识,母语写作能力等。话语标记
语属于语篇领会中语篇衔接知识的一种。而语篇衔接知识会对英语的写作产生一定的影响
(马广慧,文秋芳,1999),从而可能会影响英语的写作质量。并且,在目前中国的高考中,
越来越注重语言的应用性和实用性,将语言学习与生活相联系,强调学生将学习的语言知
识运用到生活实际中。英语作文考查多为应用文文体,如书信、邮件、海报等。而应用文
本身就是要求一定结构和范式的文体,话语标记语的语用功能就能更好的体现,因此笔者
选取了应用文文体作为研究对象。
高考的评分细则中要求,考生的作文需具有连贯性和整体性,并且能清楚明确的将作
者的观点态度传递给读者。《高中英语课程标准》也要求学生能写出语意连贯且结构完整
的短文。以上这些要求都与语篇连接和篇章结构有着密切的关系。因此,话语标记语的使
用可能会与写作水平相关。此外,在平时的写作中,我们时常会出现话语标记语缺失、误
用或者是过度使用的现象,这些现象或许会导致读者的误读,甚至影响整篇文章的连贯和
整体水平,由此影响考试的分数。▲话语标记语分类
▲话语标记语使用例析
1.结果类标记语
例1:Finally, I hope you can go with us.I'm looking forward to your coming.
In summary, I am sincerely hope that you can do something helpful to protect environment.
All in all, it's our duty to prevent the environment from getting worse.So,welcome to our lecture.
[分析]很多篇文章的结尾都会出现模板式的标记语如例 1所示,但是其类别并不是千
篇一律,这有可能与教师课堂有效的强化有关。
2.添加类标记语
例 2:And you can also read beautiful English sentences, we'll think you are a brave student.
And do you know Nick? Our English teacher who comes from American will be invited to ourparty to play a show, and we all know he is very funny.
[分析]从例2可以看出,短短的两句话内,该学生使用了 4个添加类标记语,3个为
and。这个现象可能会导致文章枯燥冗长,类似记流水账,阻碍了读者更好的理解文章的内
容。如果将第二个and改为勿the way,将第三个and改为as we all know,文章会更易读且有
趣。造成该现象的原因可能是口语话语标记语与母语思维的负迁移的影响,导致学习者不
断使用一些简单易用的标记语来连接语篇。其简单重复,虽然降低了拼写错误和语用错误
却反而使得语篇枯燥,没有清晰的结构与主次,造成过度使用这一错误。
3.标记语与标点符号误用
例3:So. if you have free time you can join us. Then. the time plan in 9: 00 am to 5:00 pm
[分析]从例3可以看出,在so和then这两个标记语后,该学生均使用了句号,标点使
用错误。事实上,很多学生搞不清楚在句首或是句中标记语后是否使用标点符号,甚至很
多学生并不重视英文里标点符号的使用,例如一些学生的作文里几乎没有一个逗号,甚至
出现汉语中使用的标点符号。其原因可能是因为,学生注重了文章语言的组织和文章的结
构,轻视了标点的使用。
例4: And we also can watch the short plays about English.
例 5:What's more, we can prepare some program for them, such as singing, dancing, telling
stories and playing games and so on.
例6:We must protect it in order to we live on the earth better.
[分析]以上3个例子均为常见的语法错误的现象,例4中also的位置应该放在can的后
面。例5中and so on的前面不应该再有and出现,例6中in order to的后面应该接动词原型
而不应该接句子。此外,In order to在三个年级学生的作文中出现的几率较高,但是其使用
错误率也很高,这就要求教师在相关话语标记语教学时,注意提醒学生语法易错点,在丰
富话语标记语使用得同时,提高使用的正确率。
4.话语标记语的过量使用问题
例 7:OK, it's all.If you have some new advice please let me know. You know, we are looking
forward to your reply.
[分析] 值得注意的是,学习者的写作语篇中使用了一些口语上普遍使用的话语标记语,
甚至使用量较多,如and, so, I think, oh, ok, you know等(如例7)。例7中使用了ok, you
know这类口语中的话语标记语。而这类话语标记语的过多使用会导致文章过于口语化,类
似对话中出现的过度和感叹词,导致文章不够严谨化与书面化。其原因与平时教师在平时的教学中的书面标记语强化不够有关。王立非(2005)也提到中国学生口语中使用最多的为
and, but, I think等词,而在写作时,时常不会断句,写出包含许多and, but的流水句。
5.标记语的错误连用
例 8:In order to let you understand Chinese culture, so I want to invite you to go to nursing
home at the Double Ninth Festival with our classmate.
[分析]在语用错误中,标记语的连用要引起足够的重视,如例8中的because/in order
to与so连用,还有though与but连用,in order to与so,since与therefore连用等,属于母语
负迁移影响下的错误。这些错误均可能会影响语篇的质量,所以均是教师在课堂上需要强
化学生记忆的重点与难点。
策略应用实践练习
1.“世界微笑日”(World Smile Day)即将到来,你校将举办主题为“Let’s Smile”的英语演
讲比赛,呼吁学生关注心理健康。请你用英文写一篇演讲稿。内容包括:
1.心理健康的重要性;
2.如何保持心理健康;
3.其他。
注意:
1.写作词数应为80左右;
2.开头和结尾已给出,不计入总词数;
3.请按如下格式在答题卡的相应位置作答。
Ladies and gentlemen,
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Thank you for your listening!
2.假定你是李华,准备参加你校举办的“快乐阅读健康视力”为主题的书签设计活动。请
你给你的留学生朋友Alick写一封邮件,寻求他的建议和帮助。
内容包括:1. 写信目的;2. 设计要求(包含绿色、阅读、健康视力三个元素)。注意:
1. 写作词数为80左右;
2. 可适当增加细节,以使行文连贯;
3. 参考词汇:快乐阅读 健康视力Happy Reading and Maintain Good Vision;书签
bookmark.
Dear Alick,
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
Yours sincerely,
Li Hua
3.假定你是李华,你的英国朋友Tim邀请你参加他们学校暑假组织的“科技夏令营”。你
想参加,现在就此事写一封信向他咨询夏令营的相关事宜,要点包括:
1. 具体日程安排;
2. 住宿和费用等。
注意:
1. 写作词数应为80左右;
2. 请在答题卡的相应位置作答。
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_
4.假定你是李华。外教Hans在课堂上谈到的英式幽默,你很感兴趣,同时也想请教英语
语法学习上的问题,请你给他写封邮件,内容包括:
1.写信目的;2.你的感受及困难所在;
3.询问当面请教时间。
注意:1.词数80左右;
2.请按如下格式在答题卡的相应位置作答。
Dear Hans,
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Yours,
Li Hua
5.世界雨林日来临之际,你校举办了一系列的庆祝活动。请你为校英文报写一篇短文,报
道此次事件。内容包括:
1.活动目的;
2.活动内容;
注意:
3.活动意义。
1.写作词数应为80左右;
2.请按如下格式在答题卡的相应位置作答。
Celebrating World Rainforest Day
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_
参考答案
1.【答案】
Ladies and gentlemen,
It’s my honor to stand here and share with you my thoughts on “Let’s Smile” on the occasion
of World Smile Day.
I think it’s essential to emphasize the importance of mental health. A healthy mind is the key
to a happy life. Without it, we can’t expect to perform well in our studies or handle the challenges
of daily life.
To maintain our mental health, we should try to be positive and optimistic, as positive
thinking can help us overcome difficulties. Exercise and a healthy diet are also essential for
maintaining good mental health.
In conclusion, let’s all make an effort to smile more and spread some happiness.
Thank you for listening!
【写作指导】本篇书面表达属于应用文写作中的演讲稿。要求考生用英文写一篇演讲稿,
参加学校举办的主题为“Let’s Smile”的英语演讲比赛。
【要点分析】1.词汇积累
必要的:essential→necessary
解决:handle →deal with
克服:overcome →get over
总之:in conclusion→in a word
2.句式拓展
合并简单句
原句:A healthy mind is the key to a happy life. Without it, we can’t expect to perform well in
our studies or handle the challenges of daily life.
拓展句:A healthy mind is the key to a happy life, without which, we couldn’t expect to perform
well in our studies or handle the challenges of daily life.
【句式亮点】【高分句型1】I think it’s essential to emphasize the importance of mental health.
(运用了省略引导词that的宾语从句以及it作形式主语)
【高分句型2】To maintain our mental health, we should try to be positive and optimistic, as
positive thinking can help us overcome difficulties.(运用了不定式作目的状语以及as引导的
原因状语从句)
2.【答案】
Dear Alick,
I am writing to ask a favor from you. Our school is planning a bookmark designing activity
this week. Knowing that you’re quite experienced in designing, I wonder if you could give me
some help and advice.
Since the theme of the activity is Happy Reading and Maintain Good Vision, the bookmark
should contain such key elements as greenness, reading and healthy vision, and it should be nice
to look at. Besides, the bookmark should carry both Chinese and English messages.
I will be very grateful that you are kind enough to lend me a hand. Please let me know as
soon as possible.
Yours sincerely,
Li Hua
【写作指导】本篇书面表达属于应用文,要求考生给留学生朋友Alick写一封邮件,向他
寻求关于学校举办的“快乐阅读健康视力”为主题的书签设计活动的建议和帮助。
【要点分析】1.词汇积累
建议:advice→suggestion
主题:theme→subject
此外:besides→in addition
因为:since→because
2.句式拓展
简单句变复合句
原句:Besides, the bookmark should carry both Chinese and English messages.
拓展句:Besides, it is both Chinese and English messages that the bookmark should carry.
【句式亮点】[高分句型1] Since the theme of the activity is Happy Reading and Maintain Good
Vision, the bookmark should contain such key elements as greenness, reading and healthy vision,
and it should be nice to look at. (运用了since引导的原因状语从句)
[高分句型2] Knowing that you’re quite experienced in designing, I wonder if you could give me
some help and advice. (运用了现在分词作状语、that引导的宾语从句和if引导的宾语从句)
3.
【答案】
Dear Tim,It’s great to hear that your school is organizing a “Technology Summer Camp” during the
upcoming summer vacation. I am thrilled to attend and learn more about the latest technological
developments.
Could you please provide me with some additional information regarding the summer camp?
I am interested in knowing the specific schedule of the program, so I can plan accordingly and
make travel arrangements. Furthermore, I would also like to inquire about the accommodation
options and related costs. It would be helpful to know whether I could live in the school dormitory
and what expenses I need to account for during my stay.
Thank you for your invitation, and I look forward to hearing back from you soon.
Best regards,
Li Hua
【写作指导】本篇书面表达属于应用文。要求考生给英国朋友Tim写信咨询夏令营的相关
事宜。
【要点分析】1.词汇积累
激动:thrilled→excited
参加:attend→present
提供:provide→offer
具体:specific→detailed
2.句式拓展
同义句替换
原句:I am interested in knowing the specific schedule of the program, so I can plan accordingly
and make travel arrangements.
同义句:I have a keen interest in obtaining the detailed program schedule, enabling me to plan
accordingly and make necessary travel arrangements.
【句式亮点】【高分句型1】It would be helpful to know whether I could live in the school
dormitory and what expenses I need to account for during my stay.(运用了whether引导的宾语
从句)
【高分句型2】I am thrilled to attend and learn more about the latest technological
developments.(运用了不定式短语做宾补)
4.
【答案】Dear Hans,
I am Li Hua, a student of your class. Since I have some trouble in learning English grammar,
I’m writing to ask you to give me some help.
To begin with, I am very interested in the English humor you mentioned in class, from which
I’ve learned a lot of knowledge. But because I’m lack of knowing English culture, sometimes I
find it hard to figure out how funny an English humor can be. What’s more, I am having some
trouble in studying English grammar, for example I can’t distinguish the differences between the
past tense and the present perfect tense. So I really hope I can consult you face to face. When will
it be convenient for me to visit you?
I would appreciate it if you could give me a hand, looking forward to your reply.
Yours
Li Hua
【写作指导】本篇书面表达为一篇应用文,要求学生给外教写一封求助信,向他请教英式
幽默以及英语语法学习上的问题。
【要点分析】1.词汇积累:
对……感兴趣:be interested in→be fascinated by/be enthusiastic about
弄懂:figure out→make sense of/make certain
而且:what’s more→in addition/additionally/furthermore
感激:appreciate→be appreciative/be thankful
2.句式拓展:
原句:Since I have some trouble in learning English grammar, I’m writing to ask you to give me
some help.
拓展句:Having some trouble in learning English grammar, I’m writing to ask you to give me
some help.
【句式亮点】【高分句型1】
To begin with, I am very interested in the English humor you mentioned in class, from which I’ve
learned a lot of knowledge.(运用了介词+which引导非限制性定语从句。)
【高分句型2】
I would appreciate it if you could give me a hand, looking forward to your reply.(运用了现在分
词作状语。)
5.【答案】
Celebrating World Rainforest Day
This week our school held a series of activities in celebration of celebration of World
Rainforest Day, the purpose of which is to raise students' awareness of the importance of
protecting rainforests.
To observe this special day, a rainforest-themed exhibition was set up in the school corridor
to show students the amazing features of rainforests and explain the issues they face. Some
volunteers also provided in-depth instruction in special classrooms, such as how to protect them
from destruction.
The activities are significant, which can inspire everyone to strive for the sustainable and
potential development of the rainforest.
【写作指导】本篇书面表达属于应用文。学校就“世界雨林日”来临之际,举办了一系列
的庆祝活动,要求考生就此为校英文报写一篇短文。
【要点分析】1.词汇积累
举办:hold→host
庆祝:observe → celebrate
提供:provide→ offer
不可思议的:amazing→ surprising
2.句式拓展
简单句变复合句
原句:Some volunteers also provided in-depth instruction in special classrooms, such as how to
protect them from destruction.
拓展句:Some volunteers also provided in-depth instruction in special classrooms, which
includes how to protect them from destruction.
【句式亮点】【高分句型1】This week our school held a series of activities in celebration of
celebration of World Rainforest Day, the purpose of which is to raise students' awareness of the
importance of protecting rainforests.(运用了介词加关系代词which引导的非限制性定语从
句)
【高分句型2】The activities are significant, which can inspire everyone to strive for the
sustainable and potential development of the rainforest.(运用了which引导的非限制性定语从
句)