09 如何强化应用文写作语类意识
语类及其作用分析
▲语类、语体与语篇
语类就是使用语言时所采取的被社会认可的方式。语类是语言表达的意义形式,这种
意义形式形成语篇。在特定的语境中展开交际的一段话语,根据交际目的自然地归属于同
一话语类型,在特定的文化语境中,这种话语类型具有一定的典型性,重复出现并被社会
普遍认可,形成某种语类。带有特定交际意图的语类,进而形成不同的语篇。语类的分析
框架如下:
图:语类的分析框架
语体是适应不同交际领域、目的、内容的需要在运用全民语言的言语行为中形成的语
言特点体系。就一定时期的语言特点来看,语体是相对稳定的。它是某类语言特点的综合
具有规约性的特点。语体在语音、词汇、语法和句式等方面的特点是静态直观的,某个言
语社团的人可以从中挑选符合情景语境的语言特点,从而呈现某种语体特色。同时,语体也具有开放性。语体随社会分工的变化而分化,在保持相对稳定性的同时,处于不断发展
的状态中。语体有渗透和交融现象,这会促进中间语体的形成。语体间的渗透并不改变原
始语体的属性,而语体间的融合则形成了新的语体类型。
语体研究的基本单位是各种语言实现形式,即语音、词汇、语法和句式等,而语类研
究的基本单位是“话语”,即有系统的、有目的性的话语。语体和语类都是属于语言层面
的。语体是话语交际的外在形式,语类是实现话语的意义方式。语体的表现特征是各种语
言形式,那些带有非语言特征的语类形式可以转而用语言特征来表现,但这就形成了不同
的语类,它们所蕴含的意义也会改变。语言是连接语类与语体的中介,语体关联的是具体
的语言表达形式,而语类关联的是语言形式的意义类型,它外在表现为一系列的实体特征
最终由语音和文字来体现。
语体和语类处于不同的地位,语体建立在语类之上,在更高的层面上运用语言,而语
类是对语体的细分,是对“言语”层的运用。语体与语类之间呈现一种交叉分布的状态。
语体在更高的层面上实现了对语类的宏观分类,具有共同语言特点的语类归属于同一语体
它们在彰显共性的同时,又突显了作为语类的个体性特征,从微观的层面上表现了语言的
不同意义形式。
▲基于语类的写作---以招聘广告写作为例
1.模式构建
以语类训练为基础的应用文写作可以参照如下模式:
在此模式中.写作者应首先建立一个写作任务的心理表证,由此引向确定题目认定成分,从而确定写作目的和语类及其结构。例如,若写作任务是“resume",其题目认定成分
很可能有“the name of the writer""the place where the writer h as studied and worked"·etc这些
题目认定成分将激活记忆,搜索与该题目有关的概念和事实与此同时.写作任务,就为预测
语类及其结构潜势、和写作的语义/内容框架打下基础;也为修辞手段和语言的运用定下了
基调。又如,从写作任务“State your opinion on fast food ",可以产生出对“stating one’s
opinion”语类的选择,其必要成分拟包括 the statement of an opinion 与 giving evidence
inference,而修辞方面的要求是清晰、衔接、有说服力;修辞手段很可能包括对thematic
structure和cohesive devices的灵活运用。总之,内容、修辞手段和语言运用这三个成分互
相交互,促使作者选择所需要的语言表达方式来完成写作任务。在这里,语言的表达方式
取决于作者要说的内容,因为内容是由语言来实现的;另一方面,语言的使用可能成功地
完成内容确定的目的,但也可能不能完成。这往往是由于英语写作者的英语水平有限引起
的由于语言上的困难,他不得不选择其他并不合适的表达方式。也就是说,语言上和修辞
上的问题会影响内容的表达。
在开始写作以前,有一个内容、修辞、语言三个成分自上而下的交互过程;之后,写作
者应把写作的内容列成一个大纲,注明修辞上的要求;在起草阶段也要注意它们之间的相互
交往.直到作出选择.落到笔头上修改草稿、编辑的过程中。这三方面的互交仍在继续,直到
最后写作完成而语类在这整个过程中一直起着纲领性的作用。还应当指出,他们的互交会
受到文化背景和写作者的心理状态的制约比如,汉语的语篇逻辑与英语的语篇逻辑会有很
大的不同。又如,如果一个作者对某个题目很有兴趣,那么他的写作动机就会比较高,而
且上面的三个因素的互交也会更加积极。
这个模式首先要求作者在正确地表证写作任务之后,必须选择所需的语类这就要求写
作者在写作课开始,脑子里储存足够的有关语类的知识。因此,教师有必要让学生熟悉各
种不同的语类以及它们的结构。特别要引导学生学会对语境三要素的分析
在交互过程中,三种知识都必须积极调动起来。为此,教师可能需要在教学工作中注
重写作的筹划,即激活思维、产生语篇结构以及选择所须的语言表达方式,以便使写作更
容易驾驭。一般说来,语言在内容和修辞手段的实现方面.是一个瓶颈。显然.语言表达方式
会随着不同的写作任务而不同,但是用来表达修辞要求的语言方式一般来说是有限的,也
是比较稳定的,特别对于开始学习写作或处于中级阶段的人来说更是如此教师有必要花一
定的时间向学生介绍实现某些语类可能使用的修辞手段,必要时可以配以各种练习。
当然不可能对内容、修辞、语言这三个方面给予同样的注意可以有步骤地引导学生起草各种写作任务。比如,一篇作文的重点是内容的构架,下一篇可以是训练对语言的运用
在开始阶段,可以在课堂上进行讨论、分析语境三要素,确定语境配置和语类,分析该语
类的必要成分和其他成分,然后让学生构勒出它的语类结构及写作大纲,逐渐让学生讨论
针对该语类可能使用的修辞手段和语言表达方式。从中级阶段开始,除了继续做上面的练
习之外,应当完成全篇作文,在这个阶段,特别是高级阶段,应当注意跨语类问题。
2.实践探索
写作教学的第一步语类赏析具体实施又细分为几步。首先,学生完全凭借自身的基础,
在课堂上规定的时间内完成一篇自己命题的招聘广告的写作,老师不给予任何指导。然后
挑选几位同学的习作在全班范围内展开讨论,从讨论中发现问题,探讨招聘广告的语类结
构潜势。最后,全班一起学习老师提供的范文,进一步学习落实这一语类的结构潜势。下
面是一位同学的习作:
Objectives: five doctors
Requirements: The applicants must have worked with the title of attending physician in
the famous hospital at least for five years.There is no limitation on the gender.
Salary and Welfare: The monthly salary ranges from ¥5,000 to¥10,000 according to
the different posts. In addition, the yearly bonus can be given at different levels.
Introduction of Hospital: Our hospital was registered as a private stock-system
Corporation in 2010. The hospital has built a good reputation among the patients with the
professional service.
Contact: Human Resource Manager Ms Deng Tel. 027一87943321
讨论围绕语类的语境配置展开:情景语境中的语场即写作目的是什么?语旨即交际
双方是谁?语式即交际双方是以书面交际为主还是以口头交际为主?哪些信息属于必要成分?
哪些信息是非必要成分?必要成分出现的顺序是什么?由此明白招聘广告写作想要说明什么
以及怎样说明。依据这几点讨论的结果如下。这位同学写作的目的比较明确。语体的选择
应较为正式,符合双方的社会距离。招聘广告需要的必要成分为引入职位、限定资格、邀
请回复文中也有体现,分别是objective,requirement, contacts,其中的salary and welfare属
于非必要成分。这些成分出现的位置都算符合要求。一个比较明显的失误是introduction of
hospital。从交际功能上看,写作者是想补充信息增强广告的吸引力,但是更符合这类信息
的位置是在“引入职位”之前,这样可以起到“建立信用”的功能。另外一个比较明显的
失误在于各个必要成分内的具体描述不够细致,针对性不强,用词比较空泛在评议学生习作后,提供符合要求的范文进一步熟悉招聘广告语类的结构潜势。这是
一篇来自naturejobs.com招聘网站上刊登的广告。全文如下:
An upcoming Postdoctoral Fellow position and a Lab Technician position are potentially
availab1e after September 2014 for highly motivated and creative individuals in the lab of Dr.
Zheng Sun at Baylor College of Medicine in Houston, United States.(引入职位)The individuals
will carry out research focused on epigenomic regulation of metabolism and cognitive
functions by physical exercise and the circadian clock. Approaches include genetic animal
models, recombinant viral vectors, metabolomics, and animalbehavior tests. For more
information about the lab, please go to http://zhengsunbcm.com/(职位说明)
QuahficationB:(限定资格)Expertise in epigenetics, metabolism, or mouse physiology.
Ability to work collaboratively with individuals from different backgrounds.
Contact: Please Bend a cover letter, CV, and contact information of 3 references( 提
醒)to:zhengsun.bcm@gmail.com(邀请回复)
这一篇范文包含3个必要成分即引入职位、限定资格、邀请回复和2个非必要成
分即职位说明、提醒。在“引入职位”部分,言简意赅地交代了实验室需要的两个职位。
由于招聘单位对所需要的专业人才针对性很强,需要进一步说明,所以随后立即出现了一
个非必要成分—“职位说明”在这篇招聘广告中‘这个非必要成分提供的附加信息能很大
程度上让应聘者明确这个职位是否真正符合自己的需求或者胜任这个职位,因此这个非必
要成分让广告的写作与语境和谐结合,比较成功地达到了交际功能在随后的必要成分“限
定资格”中,对应聘者需要具备的能力和专业知识提出具体要求。最后出现的是第三个必
要成分“邀请回复”,招聘单位提供了联系方式。但是在这之前,招聘单位使用了一个非
必要成分“提醒”,提示有意向的应聘者在联系的同时提供个人的简历和三封推荐信。
在前面的尝试写作和赏析讨论的基础上,学生组成小组,在组内交流自己的习作,依
据前面讨论学习的结果互相点评修改,教师尽可能参与到各个小组的课堂内讨论。在课后
老师针对全班同学布置一篇课外的同一语类写作练习,每周对四分之一学生的作文详细批
阅‘检查学生学习讨论的效果
策略应用实践练习
1.假设你是校学生会主席李华,你校将举办一次关于传统文化的研讨会。请你给交换生
Mary写一封电子邮件,邀请她参加。内容包括:1.时间:10月20日下午3:00—6:00;
2.地点:学校礼堂;
3.内容:观看传统文化相关视频;专家做相关讲座;互动交流。
注意:1.词数:100左右;
2.可适当增加细节,以使行文连贯。(参考词汇:研讨会seminar)
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2.假设你是学生会主席,你校将在下周五举办英语书法大赛,请你在校英文报上发布一则
书面通知。
内容包括:
1.比赛时间、地点;
2.比赛内容;
3.比赛要求。
参考词汇:English handwriting (英语书写)
注意:
1.词数应为80左右;
2.请按如下格式在答题卡的相应位置作答。
Notice
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Students’ Union
3.为推广中国文化,我校将举办一次中国剪纸(paper-cutting) 艺术展。请你用英语写一则
通知,告知学校同学有关事宜。要点包括:1.举办时间、地点;
2.展览内容。
注意:
1.词数80左右;
2.可以适当增加细节,以使行文连贯。
Notice
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
4.假定你是某校国际班的班长,你班将于下周三举行乒乓球比赛,请用英语写一则口头通
知,内容包括:
1. 比赛时间与地点;
2. 报名截止时间;
3. 参赛者需自带装备。
注意:写作词数应为80左右。
参考词汇:乒乓球拍pingpong racket
Good morning, everybody! May I have your attention, please?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_
That’s all, thank you.
5.假定你是李华,你的同学Dave感觉学习压力大,焦虑,通过玩网络游戏才能感觉到放
松,你认为这存在问题。请你给同学写一封邮件,内容包括:1. 说明问题;2. 提出建议。
注意:1. 写作词数应为80个左右;2. 请按如下格式在答题卡的相应位置作答。
3. 开头和结尾已给出,不计入总词数。
4. 可适当增加细节使内容连贯。
Dear Dave,
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Yours,
Li hua
参考答案
1.
【答案】
Dear Mary,
I’m Li Hua, Chairman of the Student Union of our school. I’m writing to invite you to attend
a seminar about traditional culture.
It is scheduled to be held at the school hall from 3 pm to 6 pm on October 20th. The activity
will begin with some videos related to traditional culture. Then, some experts will make speeches
on traditional culture. After that, there will be about one hour for communication between experts
and the audience. I’m sure the seminar will benefit you a lot. Not only will you be able to have a
better understanding of traditional culture, but also you will be informed of some local customs.
We hope that you will accept our invitation if it is convenient for you. An early reply is
appreciated.
Yours,
Li Hua
【写作指导】这是一篇类应用文,要求考生写一封邀请信,邀请交换生Mary参加关于传
统文化的研讨会,并介绍研讨会的时间、地点以及内容。
【要点分析】1. 词汇积累
预计:be scheduled to do…→be expected to do…与……有关:(be) related to→concerning/with regard to
发表演讲:make speeches→deliver lectures
使受益:benefit→be beneficial to
更好地了解:have a better understanding of→know better about
2. 句式拓展
同义句转换
原句:The activity will begin with some videos related to traditional culture.
拓展句:At the beginning of the activity, there will be some videos with regard to traditional
culture.
【句式亮点】【高分句型1】Not only will you be able to have a better understanding of
traditional culture, but also you will be informed of some local customs.(使用了Not only…but
also…并列结构并且not only引导的句子位于句首,该部分使用了部分倒装)
【高分句型2】We hope that you will accept our invitation if it is convenient for you. (使用了
that引导宾语从句和if引导条件状语从句)
2.
【答案】
Notice
With the purpose of improving students’ English handwriting and grades, the Students’ Union
is honored to announce that an English handwriting contest will be held in the evening class next
Friday. Every student in our school is encouraged to participate. You are supposed to prepare a
smooth pen and prepare any writing content with a positive theme or anything like this, such as a
poem or a beautiful song to copy and the writing sheet will be provided by school. Please get
ready for it.
Students’ Union
【写作指导】本文为应用文。假设你是学生会主席,你校将在下周五举办英语书法大赛,
请你在校英文报上发布一则书面通知。内容包括:1.比赛时间、地点;2.比赛内容;3.比赛
要求。
【要点分析】1.词汇积累
目的:purpose→aim
比赛:contest→competition
应该:be supposed to→should提供:provide→offer
2.句式拓展
简单句变复合句
原句:Every student in our school is encouraged to participate
拓展句:It is every student in our school that is encouraged to participate
【句式亮点】【高分句型1】With the purpose of improving students’ English handwriting and
grades, the Students’ Union is honored to announce that an English handwriting contest will be
held in the evening class next Friday.(运用了that引导的宾语从句)
【高分句型2】You are supposed to prepare a smooth pen and prepare any writing content with a
positive theme or anything like this, such as a poem or a beautiful song to copy and the writing
sheet will be provided by school.(运用了and连接的并列句和一般将来时的被动语态)
3.
【答案】
Notice
In order to promote Chinese culture, our school is going to hold a paper-cutting exhibition.
The exhibition is to be held in the school lecture hall at 7: 00 pm on May 20. There will be
some famous paper-cut artists performing their artworks on that day. Meanwhile, some beautiful
paper-cutting works, collected from all over the country, will be exhibited there, which will be a
feast. If you like, you can also join in paper-cutting. I’m sure it will be an unforgettable experience
for you.
Don’t miss the chance of taking part in this collective activity. You are sure to benefit a lot
from it.
【写作指导】本文是应用文。要求考生写一则通知,告知学校同学有关学校将举办的中国
剪纸(paper-cutting) 艺术展。
【要点分析】1.词汇积累
举办:hold→throw
同时:meanwhile→at the same time
展览:exhibit→on show
机会:chance→opportunity
2.句式拓展
简单句变复合句原句:In order to promote Chinese culture, our school is going to hold a paper-cutting exhibition.
拓展句:In order that we can promote Chinese culture, our school is going to hold a paper-cutting
exhibition.
【句式亮点】【高分句型1】Meanwhile, some beautiful paper-cutting works, collected from all
over the country, will be exhibited there, which will be a feast.(由which引导的非限制性定语
从句)
【高分句型2】If you like, you can also join in paper-cutting.(由If引导的条件状语从句)
4.
【答案】
Good morning, everybody! May I have your attention, please?
In order to enrich our school life and build up our body, a pingpong match will be held next
Wednesday. The details are as follows.
First, the match will begin at eight o’clock on next Wednesday morning on the school
playground. Second, participants should sign up before 6 pm next Monday in the office of the
Student Union. Anyone who is interested in pingpong can sign up for it. More importantly,
students taking part should prepare their own equipment in advance, such as a pingpong racket.
That’s all, thank you.
【写作指导】本文是一篇应用文。题目要求考生为班级将于下周三举行的乒乓球比赛写一
则口头通知,需介绍比赛时间与地点,说明报名截止时间,提醒参赛者自带装备。
【要点分析】1. 词汇积累
比赛:match→competition, contest
首先:first→initially, to begin with, in the first place
参加:take part→participate, join
提前:in advance→ahead of time, ahead
2. 句式拓展
简单句变复合句
原句:In order to enrich our school life and build up our body, a pingpong match will be held
next Wednesday.
拓展句:A pingpong match will be held next Wednesday so that we can enrich our school life
and build up our body.
【句式亮点】[高分句型1] Anyone who is interested in pingpong can sign up for it. (运用了who引导的定语从句)
[高分句型2] More importantly, students taking part should prepare their own equipment in
advance, such as a pingpong racket. (运用了现在分词短语taking part作后置定语)
5.
【答案】
Dear Dave,
I’m sorry to hear that you are addicted to playing computer games. I can understand how
upset and stressed you must be, but I think it will surely harm to your health. Here are a few things
you can do.
First, if I were you, I would try my best to limit the time spent on video games each day, so I
could spend more time on other meaningful activities and hobbies. Another step would be finding
purpose in reality, from enjoying face-to-face conversations with your family and friends to taking
a walk in the sunshine. Immerse yourself in the pleasure of real life instead of a virtual world.
I am sure that with persistence, you’ll definitely get rid of your video game addiction.
Looking forward to your good news.
Yours,
Li Hua
【写作指导】本篇书面表达为一篇应用文。要求学生给Dave写一封建议信,因为他感觉学
习压力大,焦虑,通过玩网络游戏才能感觉到放松。给他写信提出问题,并给予建议。
【要点分析】1.词汇积累:
伤害:harm→do harm to/be harmful to
使沉浸于:immerse→absorb/bury
摆脱:get rid of→cast off/break away from
焦虑的:stressed→anxious/worried
2.句式拓展:
同义句转换
原句:First, if I were you, I would try my best to limit the time spent on video games each day, so
I could spend more time on other meaningful activities and hobbies.
拓展句:First, were I you, I would try my best to limit the time spent on video games each day,
so I could spend more time on other meaningful activities and hobbies.
【句式亮点】【高分句型1】First, if I were you, I would try my best to limit the time spent onvideo games each day, so I could spend more time on other meaningful activities and hobbies.(运
用了虚拟语气和)
【高分句型2】Here are a few things you can do.(运用了倒装句)